Edit history:
– 2025 January 7: After a discussion with Dr. J. Kisieliauskas, next to Sports Influencers, Influencer Athletes we introduce the Sports Celebrity term.
When I was writing my Master’s thesis back in 2017, I would start articles like this by saying, “With the rise of social media…,” but in 2025, we’re flooded by social media. The reality is that having a social media presence or the ability to attract large audiences has become a valuable asset for anyone. In sports, it’s even more important. Take influencer athletes like Caitlin Clark, for example—she earns 99% of her money not directly from playing, but from being a brand ambassador and a popular personality (Badenhausen, 2024).
This is particularly visible in the US, where athletes’ earnings are heavily influenced by their social media presence. Other sports are starting to catch up as well, with the obvious exception of soccer, which exists in a world of its own.
We’ve already analyzed what makes a player hypegenic, introduced a hypegenic meter, and explored how hype generates value. Now, I want to focus on the metrics we should measure, how to assess success, and how to determine if acquiring a popular (and skilled) athlete is a valuable asset and a good strategy for clubs and the overall growth of the sports ecosystem.
If you want to see this in action, subscribe to my blog, where I’ll analyze the addition of Lonnie Walker IV to Kaunas Žalgiris, how hypegenic he is and explore how it influences the value of the club and the entire Euroleague ecosystem.
With this article, I’m jumping a bit ahead of myself, as the concept of an athlete’s brand will be analyzed in the future. It will play an important role in my PhD thesis, once we examine value co-creation among sports entities within the sports ecosystem.
Influencer Athletes: The Impact of Social Media on Athlete’s Brand Value
To begin, let’s first clarify what we mean by Influencer Athlete, Brand, Brand Value, and Athlete’s Brand, as these concepts are key to understanding the dynamics at play.
- Influencer Athletes are prominent figures in sports who have the power to influence consumer behavior and shape brand narratives (Aydın, 2024). Unlike sports influencers, who are skilled in sports but primarily create content for their audiences, influencer athletes are professional or semi-professional competitors whose main occupation revolves around participating in sports. This distinction highlights the dual role of influencer athletes as both elite performers and impactful brand ambassadors. According to Voráček and Bernardová (2021) research, athletes influence the behavioral intentions of members of the Generation Z more than bloggers in every researched sphere related to purchasing.
- Brand refers to the positive outcomes generated by effective branding. These include influencing consumer decisions, encouraging premium pricing, enhancing marketing communication, and promoting positive word-of-mouth (Aaker, 1996; Berry, 2000; Keller, 1993; Rein, Kotler, & Shields, 2006a).
- Brand value can be understood on two levels. On a macro level, it shapes how investors and financial analysts perceive a company, which can directly influence its stock price (Simon & Sullivan, 1993). On a micro level, brand value drives consumer behavior, notably by increasing purchase intent (Cobb-Walgren et al., 1995).
- Athlete’s brand has evolved with the increasing roles athletes play across various platforms. No longer merely endorsements or advertising tools, athletes have become cultural products—brands in their own right (Gilchrist, 2005). A powerful athlete brand can significantly boost earnings from salaries, transfer fees, and endorsement deals (Parmentier & Fischer, 2012). Furthermore, an athlete’s brand helps preserve their public image, even when their on-field performance wanes (Pegoraro & Jinnah, 2012). It’s shaped by a unique identity, name, and recognizable traits that distinguish them from competitors (Parmentier & Fischer, 2012; Schmidt et al., 2018). Arai et al. (2014) describe the athlete brand as a public persona that associates their name, image, and other brand elements with symbolic meaning and value in the marketplace.
In essence, influencer athletes embody all these characteristics. They are not just athletes—they are brands that drive consumer behavior, enhance marketing effectiveness, and influence purchasing decisions. This power translates into greater earnings through salary, transfer fees, and endorsement deals.
So, what’s the role of social media in all of this? As of 2024, a significant percentage of people worldwide are active on social media platforms. Back in the 90s, Dennis Rodman used his celebrity relationships to his advantage, which not only boosted his own popularity but also benefited the NBA, as the league turned a blind eye to his unconventional behavior because it helped generate buzz. Today, social media amplifies this effect—players are now using their online presence to grow the NBA’s brand, while the NBA, in turn, helps elevate their profiles. This mutual relationship is stronger than ever.
Hill and Jolly (2012) observed a gradual shift in NBA players’ salaries from being primarily based on performance metrics to incorporating non-performance factors, particularly following changes in the NBA’s Collective Bargaining Agreement. Similarly, Ertug and Castellucci (2013), through an analysis of longitudinal data spanning the 1989-90 to 2004-05 NBA seasons, found that both reputation and status positively influenced players’ salaries. More recently, Lee et al. (2023) examined the 100 highest-paid NBA players and confirmed a positive correlation between a player’s salary and their social media following, specifically on Instagram.
Value of Influencer Athletes: Impact on Sports Ecosystem and Sports Clubs
In this article, we’ll explore whether it’s worthwhile for clubs to invest in athletes who have achieved influencer status and how to measure their value. Sim (2024) highlights that many athletes now command larger social media followings than the teams they represent. For clubs aiming to tap into those audiences and expand their fanbase, it’s increasingly essential to provide content that their stars can share seamlessly.
For instance, while Manchester United, a Premier League giant, boasts 63.6 million followers on Instagram, just three of their players—Casemiro, Marcus Rashford, and Raphael Varane—collectively rival that number across their individual profiles. Adding the followings of the rest of the first team brings the total to nearly 168 million, over 2.5 times the club’s own Instagram following (Sim, 2024).
Naturally, acquiring an influencer athlete with a large following can draw significant attention to your club, improve sponsorship opportunities, and fuel growth for the sports entities connected to the club and its ecosystem.
This phenomenon is evident on a larger scale with standout examples. Lalli (2018) observes that Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) has more followers in Brazil than in France, primarily due to the signing of Neymar, a Brazilian superstar and one of his country’s most popular figures. According to Frédéric Longuépée, PSG’s deputy chief executive, players like Neymar help to expand the club’s brand globally, broaden its fanbase, and provide the brands associated with the club unique access to star players (Lalli, 2018).
While these high-profile examples, such as Beckham’s move to LA Galaxy or Messi and Ronaldo transfers to the USA and Saudi Arabia, showcase the potential impact of signing influencer athletes, the question remains: Can similar effects be achieved on a smaller scale? Moreover, could this approach become a sustainable, long-term strategy to consistently attract influencer athletes and foster steady growth for the club? Can this lead to club being recognised internationally?
While a deep, long-term analysis is necessary to fully answer these questions, the aim of this article is to propose a method for calculating the short-term effectiveness of such acquisitions compared to regular influencers or sports influencers and to explore how sports clubs can capitalize on these opportunities.
Edit (2025 Jan. 7) – Sports Celebrities: Influencer Athlete Variety
After a discussion with Dr. Justinas Kisieliauskas, we concluded that alongside Sports Influencers and Influencer Athletes, a third category—Sports Celebrities—needs to be introduced.
Distinctions Between Influencer Athletes and Sports Influencers
The primary difference between Influencer Athletes and Sports Influencers lies in their focus. Influencer Athletes prioritize their sports careers while actively engaging in content creation as part of their branding efforts. Ronaldo and LeBron James exemplify this category, as their athletic success forms the foundation of their influence, but their consistent creation of engaging content significantly enhances their audience appeal and marketability.
Sports Influencers, on the other hand, are primarily content creators who operate within the sports ecosystem without competing professionally. Their main objective is producing sports-themed or lifestyle content to captivate and grow their audience. Despite their different origins, both types emphasize content creation as a key component of their influence and success.
The Role of Sports Celebrities
Sports Celebrities, like Influencer Athletes, are rooted in their focus on sports. However, they differ in that content creation is not a central aspect of their branding strategy. According to Ekşioğlu (2021), celebrities build their reputations by excelling in one or more entertainment fields, such as sports, cinema, music, or television. Unlike influencers, celebrities rarely take part in the planning or creative execution of marketing campaigns. Instead, they contribute their name and image to pre-designed brand initiatives.
Ekşioğlu (2021) and Schouten et al. (2021) highlight that celebrities are often associated with luxury lifestyles, which can make them less relatable to the general public. In contrast, influencers are deemed more trustworthy and relatable due to their perceived authenticity and accessibility. These factors directly impact the effectiveness of advertising, as audiences tend to feel more connected to influencers than to celebrities.
Implications for Advertising and Engagement
Ronaldo serves as an illustrative example of an Influencer Athlete who blends elements of celebrity and content creation. While his association with luxury is undeniable, his proactive efforts to create engaging content and connect with his audience enhance his relatability and advertising appeal. Similarly, LeBron James utilizes content creation to share personal insights, building stronger connections with his fanbase.
Key Metrics to Measure the Value of Influencer Athletes to Sports Clubs
First of all, I believe that to measure the success of Influencer Athletes, we need a comparative unit—a cost of a regular influencer or sports influencer and the results they deliver. This gives us a baseline for understanding the value Influencer Athletes bring to the table.
Earned Media Value (EMV)
When it comes to regular influencers, Influencity (2024) highlights Earned Media Value (EMV) as a key metric for evaluating influencer marketing success. It measures the value generated by campaigns through social interactions like shares, likes, and comments. It also considers blog interactions, user-generated reviews, and recommendations about your brand. Unlike traditional ROI metrics such as click-throughs and conversions, Earned Media Value provides a broader perspective on the potential impact an influencer can create.
This metric helps brands identify which influencer from a shortlist can run a more effective campaign. By choosing the right person, companies can boost brand awareness and improve their chances of achieving marketing objectives.
Marketing Objectives of a Sports Club
- Expanding participation;
- Encouraging public interest in sport;
- Ensuring financial capability;
- Increasing the members of the club.
These objectives, as outlined by Moyo et al. (2022), show what sports clubs aim to achieve. Here’s what they mean:
- Expanding Participation: This is about involving more people by increasing attendance at games, selling more merchandise, growing viewership, or boosting engagement on social media – growing the number of followers, improving engagement rates, and driving more clicks on ads or posts.
- Encouraging Public Interest in Sport: Here, the focus is on maintaining a strong brand image and making the club more visible. Building hype around the Influencer Athlete and motivating fans to share content plays a big role. This could be through news articles about the athlete or user-generated content created by fans.
- Ensuring Financial Capability: Attracting and keeping sponsors is key. Signing an Influencer Athlete could lead to more sponsor interest—but we need to ask: are we capitalizing on this opportunity, or is there room for improvement?
- Increasing the Members of the Club: This involves strengthening connections with fans, sponsors, and other stakeholders to grow the club’s community and ecosystem. For example, we can analyze if the league benefits from the athlete’s influence, whether their teammates’ value increases, or even if their presence boosts the city’s popularity.
This provides us with an initial roadmap for evaluating the value that an Influencer Athlete contributes to a sports club. By aligning the marketing objectives of the club with measurable metrics, we can better understand the impact of signing an Influencer Athlete.
Conclusion: Measuring the Value of Influencer Athlete
Here’s the initial model for measuring the value of an influencer athlete, and comparing it to a regular (sports) influencer. This approach helps determine not just if it’s worth investing in an influencer athlete, but also if it might be a better option than investing in a regular influencer.
Of course, if your goals are not specifically sports-related (e.g., targeting families, young women, etc.), then working with influencers from those areas would be more appropriate. But if you’re focused on building your club’s brand within the sports world and have a clear strategy to leverage the exposure, investing in an influencer athlete could make more sense.
We’ve identified the key categories and subcategories, and here’s how the calculations work:
- Weight (%): This should be determined by the club based on their specific goals. Different metrics will have varying importance depending on the desired outcomes.
- Metric Scaling: Each metric should be divided by the required number so that the final values don’t exceed 10. This ensures consistency and easier comparison.
- Final Ratio Calculation: At the end of the analysis, we divide the sum of the weighted metrics by the cost to generate a final ratio. This ratio gives us a clearer sense of the cost-to-value ratio for both influencer athletes and regular influencers.
- Followers (Influencer Athlete): The number of followers for an influencer athlete isn’t directly factored into the metrics. However, it’s included to give you a sense of what results can be expected based on their audience size.
- Followers (Regular Influencers): Ideally, the follower count for regular influencers would allow us to account for overlapping followers, but since this data isn’t available, the best approach is to look at the number of influencers and their total combined followers. This can help to determine whether it’s more effective to collaborate with a smaller number of large influencers or a larger group of micro-influencers.
By using this model, clubs can assess which type of influencer—athlete or regular—offers the best return on investment for their marketing goals.
The Athlete Influencer Meter v0.1 (2024.12.24)
| Metric Category | Subcategory | Influencer Athlete | Regular Influencer(s) | Weight (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cost | Cost of the influencer’s contract (in $1000s) | |||
| Number of Followers (Excluded) | Social media following (in hundreds of thousands) | |||
| Expanding Participation | Social media growth (followers, engagement) | |||
| Engagement rate with related content | ||||
| Attendance results (if measurable) | ||||
| Merch sales vs. promoted product sales (if applicable) | ||||
| Encouraging Public Interest in Sport | News coverage | |||
| User-generated content | ||||
| Ensuring Financial Capability | Sponsor engagement | |||
| Attracting/renewing sponsor deals | ||||
| Increasing the Members of the Club | Effect on sports league | |||
| Effect on city/community | ||||
| Other Sports Entities |
As of December 24th, 2024, this is an initial model, which will be updated following the first test run.
Formula for Club Value Growth index (CVGi)
The Athlete Influencer Meter v0.2 (2025.01.11)
In order to make these calculations more legit, I’ve asked help from my Master’s degree supervisor Dr. Justinas Kisieliauskas, who is an expert in both sports marketing and economic fields to provide me with a formula that I could later use in order to compare the value provided from Athlete Influencers/Sports Celebrities vs Sports Influencers. He provided the Club Value Growth index (CVGi).
This is a robust model designed to quantify the contribution of athletes and influencers to a sports club’s growth. It provides a clear framework for evaluating their impact across multiple strategic metrics, enabling clubs to make data-informed investment decisions.
This model uses a structured 10-point scale to normalize metrics, making comparisons fair and consistent across quantitative and qualitative dimensions.
Normalizing Metrics: The 10-Point Scale
To ensure fair representation:
- Quantitative Metrics: The highest performer for a given metric is assigned a score of 10. Other scores are calculated proportionally based on their performance relative to the highest result.
Example: If an athlete generates €10,000 in merchandise sales, and an influencer generates €7,600, the athlete’s score is 10, while the influencer’s score is 760010000×10=7.6100007600×10=7.6. - Qualitative Metrics: For metrics like “Effect on city/community,” if one entity demonstrates a measurable impact, they receive a score of 10, and the other receives a proportional score. If no measurable impact exists for either, both receive a score of 0.
Metrics and Weights
Each metric is grouped into strategic areas with assigned weights (coefficients) to reflect its importance. These weights adjust the influence of each metric on the overall Club Value Growth Index (CVGi).
| Strategic Area | Metric | Type | Weight (Coefficient) | Normalization Approach |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expanding Participation | Social media growth (followers, engagement) | Quantitative | w1 | Normalize growth rates relative to the best performer. |
| Engagement rate with related content | Quantitative | w2 | Normalize based on interaction rates as a percentage. | |
| Attendance results (if measurable) | Quantitative | w3 | Normalize attendance changes against the highest increase. | |
| Merch sales vs. promoted product sales | Quantitative | w4 | Normalize based on relative revenue performance. | |
| Encouraging Public Interest | News coverage | Quantitative | w5 | Normalize based on the number and impact of media mentions. |
| User-generated content | Quantitative | w6 | Normalize based on volume and engagement levels. | |
| Ensuring Financial Capability | Sponsor engagement | Qualitative | w7 | Rated on a 1–10 scale for depth of interaction. |
| Attracting/renewing sponsor deals | Qualitative | w8 | Normalize based on the number and scale of agreements. | |
| Increasing Club Membership | Effect on sports league | Qualitative | w9 | Rated on a 1–10 scale for league-wide contributions. |
| Effect on city/community | Qualitative | w10 | Rated on a 1–10 scale based on local impact. | |
| Impact on other sports entities | Qualitative | w11 | Rated on a 1–10 scale based on partnership potential. |
Formula and Calculation
The CVGi is calculated by summing the weighted scores of all metrics:
Separate CVGi scores are calculated for athletes and influencers:
Comparative Value
To determine cost-effectiveness, the CVGi scores are normalized by acquisition costs:
This comparison identifies which investment offers greater value relative to cost.
Conclusion
The Athlete Influencer Meter combines a 10-point normalization system with weighted metrics to provide a comprehensive evaluation framework. By proportionally scoring quantitative metrics and using a qualitative scale for subjective metrics, this model ensures fairness and comparability. Clubs can confidently use this method to assess the relative value of athletes and influencers and make strategic decisions that align with their goals.
Example of the Formula in Use
A club evaluates an influencer and an athlete using the Athlete Influencer Meter. They normalize scores for each metric on a 10-point scale, apply the specified coefficients, and calculate the cost-effectiveness of each option.
Weights (Coefficients)
The club assigns the following weights to the metrics:
| Metric | Coefficient (Weight) |
|---|---|
| Attendance Results | 1.0 |
| News Coverage | 1.0 |
| Sponsor Engagement | 1.0 |
| Attracting/Renewing Sponsor Deals | 1.0 |
| Effect on City/Community | 0.8 |
| Effect on Sports League | 0.8 |
| Merchandise Sales | 0.8 |
| Social Media Growth | 0.6 |
| Engagement Rate | 0.6 |
| User-Generated Content | 0.6 |
| Impact on Other Sports Entities | 0.6 |
Performance Scores
The normalized scores for the influencer and the athlete (on a 10-point scale) are:
| Metric | Influencer Score | Athlete Score |
|---|---|---|
| Attendance Results | 5 | 10 |
| News Coverage | 7 | 9 |
| Sponsor Engagement | 8 | 10 |
| Attracting/Renewing Sponsor Deals | 6 | 10 |
| Effect on City/Community | 7 | 8 |
| Effect on Sports League | 6 | 9 |
| Merchandise Sales | 8 | 10 |
| Social Media Growth | 10 | 7 |
| Engagement Rate | 9 | 6 |
| User-Generated Content | 10 | 6 |
| Impact on Other Sports Entities | 6 | 7 |
Calculating the CVGi
Using the formula
we calculate the total Club Value Growth Index for both the influencer and the athlete:
Cost-Effectiveness
The monthly costs are €15,000 for the influencer and €25,000 for the athlete. The cost-effectiveness ratio is:
Results and Insights
- Influencer’s Value (0.00425) is higher than the Athlete’s Value (0.00305), indicating that the influencer offers better value for the club’s investment.
- However, the athlete has a higher overall CVGi (76.2 vs. 63.8), indicating that their total contribution to the club is greater, albeit at a higher cost. When factoring in sports performance results, it becomes evident that clubs should consider an athlete’s social media presence as part of the selection process, ensuring their influence complements their athletic contributions.
As of January 11th, 2025, we have a final formula, which will be updated following the first test run.
Questions Answered in this Article
What is an influencer athlete?
Influencer athletes are professional or semi-professional sports figures who combine their athletic careers with the ability to shape consumer behavior and brand narratives. They stand out as both elite competitors and impactful brand ambassadors.
How do influencer athletes differ from sports influencers?
The main difference lies in their primary roles. Influencer athletes compete professionally or semi-professionally in sports, while sports influencers create content focused on sports but do not participate in professional competitions.
Why are influencer athletes significant in branding?
Influencer athletes can impact consumer behavior more effectively than traditional influencers, especially with younger audiences like Generation Z. Their dual role as athletes and public figures gives them unique power to drive brand narratives and consumer decisions.
What is a brand?
A brand encompasses the positive outcomes of successful branding, such as influencing purchase decisions, enabling premium pricing, improving marketing effectiveness, and encouraging positive word-of-mouth.
What is brand value?
Brand value operates on two levels. At the macro level, it shapes investor and analyst perceptions, often influencing stock prices. At the micro level, it drives consumer behavior, including increased purchase intent and loyalty.
How has the concept of an athlete’s brand evolved?
Athlete branding has grown beyond endorsements, positioning athletes as cultural icons and standalone brands. They leverage their unique traits, identities, and public personas to build strong brand recognition and value.
What defines a strong athlete brand?
A strong athlete brand is built on distinctive qualities, such as their name, appearance, and image. These elements create a recognizable identity that sets them apart from competitors and fosters symbolic meaning for fans and consumers.
How do athlete brands impact financial and cultural markets?
Athlete brands enhance revenue streams through salaries, sponsorships, and endorsement deals. Additionally, they strengthen emotional and cultural connections, benefiting sports ecosystems and related industries.
What is EMV?
EMV (Earned Media Value) measures the value of social interactions like likes, shares, and comments generated by influencer campaigns. It reflects the impact an influencer has on brand awareness and engagement.
What are the marketing objectives of a sports club?
The key objectives are:
- Expanding participation (increasing social media engagement, attendance, and sales)
- Encouraging public interest (maintaining brand image and generating buzz)
- Ensuring financial capability (attracting and retaining sponsors)
- Increasing club membership (building relationships with fans and stakeholders)
What metrics should we measure to determine an Influencer Athlete’s value to the club?
We should measure:
- Cost of the athlete’s contract
- Number of followers
- Social media growth and engagement
- Attendance and merchandise sales
- News coverage and user-generated content
- Sponsor impact
- Effects on the broader sports ecosystem (league, city, etc.)
CITATION
Bakanauskas, P. (2024, December 24). Value of Influencer Athletes: Should Clubs Invest? Play of Values. https://playofvalues.com/value-of-influencer-athletes/
IN-TEXT CITATION: (Bakanauskas, 2024)
List of References
- Aaker, D. (1996). Building strong brands. New York: Free Press.
- Arai, A., Ko, Y. J., & Ross, S. (2014). Branding athletes: Exploration and conceptualization of athlete brand image. Sport Management Review, 17(2), 97–106. Link.
- Aydın, M. (2024). The Effects of Influencer Athletes on Sports Marketing in New Media. In F. Alıncak & M. Özdal (Eds.), Current Studies in Physical Education and Sports 2024 (pp. 121-127). ISRES Publishing. Link.
- Badenhausen, K. (2024a, December 4). CAITLIN CLARK’S WNBA SALARY ONLY 1% OF HER TOTAL 2024 EARNINGS. Sportico.com. Link.
- Berry, L. (2000). Cultivating service brand equity. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28, 128–137.
- Cobb-Walgren, C.J., Ruble, C. A., & Donthu, N. (1995). Brand equity, brand preference, and purchase intent. Journal of Advertising, 24(Fall), 25–40.
- Earned Media Value (EMV): What it is and how to calculate it. (2024, May 7). Influencity. Link.
- Ekşioğlu, S. (2021, April 29). Celebrities vs. Influencers: What Sets Them Apart? INFLOW Network. Link.
- Ertug, G., & Castellucci, F. (2013). Getting what you need: how reputation and status affect team performance, hiring, and salaries in the NBA. Academy of Management Journal, 56(2), 407–431.
- Hill, J., & Jolly, N. (2012). Salary distribution and collective bargaining agreements: A case study of the NBA. Industrial Relations, 51(2), 342–363.
- Keller, K. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1–22.
- Lalli, F. (2018, March 19). Athletes and Social Media: the value of Sports Influencers and the new strategic assets of the Club. Medium. Link.
- Lee, C. C., Zhang, R., Lomotey, R., Watkins, J., & Huang, Y. (2023). Examining the impact of social media following on player salary in the national basketball association: a multivariate statistical analysis. Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 25(1). Link.
- Moyo, T., Duffett, R., & Knott, B. (2022). An analysis of cause-related and social marketing strategies in the South African sport management industry. Sage Open, 12(2), 21582440221108181.
- Parmentier, M. A., & Fischer, E. (2012). How athletes build their brands. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 11(1–2), 106–124.
- Pegoraro, A., & Jinnah, N. (2012). Tweet’em and reap’em: The impact of professional athletes’ use of Twitter on current and potential sponsorship opportunities. Journal of Brand Strategy, 1(1), 85–97.
- Rein, I. J., Kotler, P., & Shields, B. (2006). The elusive fan: Reinventing sports in a crowded marketplace. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Schmidt, S.H., Shreffler, M.B., Hambrick, M.E., & Gordon, B. S. (2018), An experimental examination of activist type and effort on brand image and purchase intentions, Sports Marketing Quarterly, 27, 31–43.
- Schouten, A. P., Janssen, L., & Verspaget, M. (2021). Celebrity vs. Influencer endorsements in advertising: the role of identification, credibility, and Product-Endorser fit. In Leveraged marketing communications (pp. 208-231). Routledge.
- Sim, J. (2024, April 16). Why sports teams need to leverage their players’ social media profiles to grow their fanbase. Sports Pro. Link.
- Simon, C.J., & Sullivan, M.W. (1993). The measurement and determinants of brand equity: A financial approach. Marketing Science, 12(Winter), 28–52.
- Voráček, J., & Bernardová, M. (2021). Athletes vs. bloggers: influence on purchase preferences of the Generation Z. AUC Kinanthropologica, 57(1), 92–108. Link. Link.
